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The papers in this series report the preliminary results of research undertaken in the Institute for Education Policy Research. They are published in this preliminary form to stimulate discussion and generally comment on work that is still in progress. Consequently all findings should be viewed as tentative and should not be cited without the prior agreement of the Corresponding Author.

Please click on the title to view or download the paper. Click on the authors' names to see biographical information and contact details.

Documents are in Word format unless otherwise stated.

Working Paper 2010/52

Talking your way to success? Effects of self-belief training on students’ performance and aspirations (pdf document)

Amanda Hughes, Mark Torrance, David White, David Galbraith and Peter Davies

Abstract: We report evaluation of a training program aimed at developing academic self-belief and motivation in Key Stage 4 students, mainly by encouraging the use of positive self-talk. 263 Year 10 students from five schools completed multidimensional measures of self-efficacy, self-esteem, and academic motivation and aspirations prior to, immediately following, and around 20 weeks after completing the Pacific Institute’s Go For It! program. Their scores were compared with those of 322 students from five schools matched on performance and socio-economic status and tested at similar intervals. We found no evidence of sustained positive effects of the intervention on any self-belief or motivational measures, or on aspirations or academic performance. We attribute lack of effects to poor student uptake of the self-talk strategies taught during the program, and possibly to the general ineffectiveness of seeking to develop self-efficacy by persuasion.

Working Paper 2009/51

Promoting Innovation in English Schools: the role of school governance (pdf document)

Nick Adnett

Abstract:

Purpose
This paper develops a framework for use in the analysis of effects of variation of governance on innovation in schools. The framework is used to evaluate recent policy change in England which has presented 'greater freedom for schools' and local networks' as methods of increasing innovation in schools.

Proposed Conceptual Argument
Current debates about the merits of alternative systems of school governance have generally concentrated upon the consequences for pupil attainment and the efficiency of resource allocation. Arguably, the effects of particular types of governance on knowledge creation within the schooling system are more important to the overall effectiveness of schooling over time. We analyse the different models of governance which have been favoured in recent English schooling policies, concentrating upon the incentives to innovate and transfer knowledge.

Implications
Policy makers keen to increase rates of innovation in schools will need to take careful account of the complex interactions between policies on competition, school funding and regulation and local representation that are likely to impact on incentives and capacity for innovation. One possible policy response would be to make part of the recurrent grant to schools dedicated to innovation and knowledge transfer. If schools were required to be accountable for how this money was used and the outcomes in terms of innovation, then continuation of this funding could be made dependent on a review of their past achievement.

The Growth of International Students and Economic Development: Friends or Foes? (pdf document)

Nick Adnett

Abstract: In recent years the exporting of higher education, predominantly through the hosting of international students, has become a major activity for several developed economies. Those countries that have become substantial net importers of higher education, predominantly developing and transitional economies, have usually supported, or acquiesced in, this process since returning students enhance their domestic human capital stocks, whilst temporary emigration has frequently become an acceptable means of ensuring the short-term sustainability of their current account deficits. Here we bring together the findings of recent studies to reassess the impact of this growth of international students on the extent and pattern of global income inequality. We conclude that the benefits from the growth of trade in higher education accrue predominantly to developed countries, with the costs being disproportionately borne by the poorest countries.

The application of variation theory in undergraduate teaching: addressing some difficulties in the context of students' understanding of saving (pdf document)

Peter Davies, Cecilia Lundholm and Jean Mangan

Abstract: This paper reports some findings from a small project that aims to address three difficulties that limit the application of variation theory in the teaching of some subjects. The first difficulty is reliance upon intensive methods to uncover different ways in which a phenomenon is understood. For example, phenomenographic research has suggested categorical differences in ways of understanding only a few phenomena in economics and, as far as we are aware, none at all in business studies. A second difficulty lies in the identification of a phenomenon. Current teaching frequently presents a way of understanding a phenomenon as the phenomenon itself. 'Today we are going to learn about product life cycles'. In these circumstances it is not always a straightforward matter to identify the phenomenon. A third difficulty lies in variation in the ways in which different social phenomena can be experienced.

The project examined students' understanding of 'withdrawals from the economy'. Data were collected through interviews and students' examination answers. The interviews focused on the effects of changes in saving, first at an individual and then at a collective level. Interview transcripts were analysed by the three researchers to identify differences in ways of understanding the phenomenon of saving and these categories were then compared with those arising from the examination transcripts. These data are used to provide a basis for the discussion of the three difficulties identified above.

English Universities, Additional Fee Income and Access Agreements: Impact on Widening Participation and Fair Access (pdf document)

Colin McCaig and Nick Adnett

Abstract: This paper argues that the introduction of access agreements following the establishment of the Office for Fair Access (OFFA) has consolidated how English higher education institutions (HEIs) position themselves in the marketplace in relation to widening participation. However, the absence of a national bursary scheme has led to obfuscation rather than clarification from the perspective of the consumer. This paper analyses OFFA's 2008 monitoring report and a sample of 20 HEIs' original 2006 and revised or updated access agreements (2008) to draw conclusions about the impact of these agreements on notions of 'fair access' and widening participation. The authors conclude that, unsurprisingly in an increasingly market-driven system, institutions use access agreements primarily to promote enrolment to their own programmes rather than to promote system-wide objectives. As a consequence of this marketing focus, previous differences between pre-92 and post-92 institutions in relation to widening participation and fair access are perpetuated leading to both confusion for consumers and an inequitable distribution of bursary and other support mechanisms for the poorest applicants to HE.

Technological change and employer-provided training: Evidence from German establishments (link to IDEAS web site)

Ardiana Gashi, Geoff Pugh and Nick Adnett

Abstract: There is a wide range of theoretical and empirical analyses suggesting that technological change has increased the demand for skills. Since training is a mechanism to upgrade workers’ skills, it would be expected that technical progress strengthens the importance of training on account of the requirement for skills to complement new technology. However, the relationship between technical progress and firms’ (employer-funded) continuous training has been little investigated. In our research we address the theoretical gap by building upon existing models from the skillbiased technological change and training literatures. This theoretical platform supports a maintained hypothesis of a positive relationship between training and technological change, which we investigate empirically for Germany using data from the IAB establishment panel. Our empirical findings indicate that in Germany a greater share of workers undergo further/continuing training in establishments subject to technological change. An important issue we raise in our empirical analysis is the possibility of endogeneity/simultaneity between training and technological change.

Setting tuition fees in English HEIs: A framework of principles for guiding policy in “modern universities”, with particular reference to Staffordshire University (pdf document)

Geoff Pugh and Ian Jackson

Outline: This Report aims to inform fee setting at Staffordshire University by deriving principles from recent research literature and by developing a theoretically informed and practical approach to fee setting at the award level.

Part 1 surveys the literature and set outs principles for price setting and recruitment strategy in Higher Education. The Executive Summary sets out principles with a minimum of supporting argument. The following Literature Review sets out the theory, evidence and supporting references in detail.

Part 2 provides Applications, which are informed both by the research literature and by interviews with Faculty Recruitment Managers in autumn 2006. These applications mainly highlight issues that are particular to different types of award (postgraduate, HND, Foundation) modes of delivery (part-time, distance) and/or market (local, international). In addition, we discuss issues related to external sponsorship and placements.

Part 3 sets out an Approach to setting award-specific fees. This approach informs a Questionnaire that enables an award-specific fee to be set by making award-specific adjustments to a standard fee.

For readers requiring results and applications rather than detailed supporting argument, we recommend moving directly from the Executive Summary to the Questionnaire in Part 3.

When Things of Logic Are Not the Logic of Things: A Second Look at Leadership Preparation in the U.S. and the U.K. (pdf document)

Fenwick English and Cheryl Bolton

Abstract: This paper examines the traditional bifurcation of reason and emotion in the preparation of educational leadership which, following regnant business planning and management models, focuses almost exclusively on social science methodology and the tenets of rational choice theory (RCT) in formal university based preparation programs in the United States and the United Kingdom.

There are major reasons to re-examine the adequacy of the dictates of rational choice theory in leadership preparation, not the least of which is that conceptually RCT has a difficult time dealing with moral and cultural decisions; it assumes that culture is homogenous or at least not a major factor in fueling conflict because culture itself is neither rational nor irrational it simply is; and emotion or passion cannot be the base for rational decision making unless and until it is re-shaped to conform to the requirements of rationality. Since real decision making contexts often do not contain such elements, a leader who is not familiar with the “irrationality” of “rationality” may be unpleasantly surprised and suffering psychological “wounding.”

The paper posits that there is a difference between decision-making and sense making in organizations. The latter concept involves the whole human’s personal cosmology including feelings and beliefs. The paper briefly proposes an alternative perspective of resolving the rationality/emotion binary placing leadership preparation firmly into the realm of aesthetics and the humanities which spans the boundaries of both and harkens back to the ancient Greek notion of thumos which includes the human soul insisting on its own importance.

Feedback alignment: effective and ineffective links between formative assessment of learning (pdf document)

Paul Orsmond and Stephen Merry

Abstract: Tutors’ intentions, when they provide feedback, may not be accurately perceived and acted on by students (Higgins et al., 2002; Rust, 2002). Our previous study (Orsmond et al., 2005) showed that students received and utilised tutors’ feedback in a variety of different ways that concerned predominantly motivation, learning, clarification and reflection. However this study did not investigate the relationship between tutors’ intentions for that feedback and how students used it
in practice. In the present study 19 Level 2 Biological Sciences students and 6 tutors were interviewed concerning the tutor’s intentions when providing a specific piece of feedback and the students’ perceptions and usage of that feedback. A phenomenological approach (Giorgi and Giorgi, 2003) was used to analyse the interview data. Additionally, copies of the documented feedback were examined and the style of feedback classified (Brown et al., 2003). Students’ interpretation of tutor feedback was found to be highly individual. Students may be looking for particular things and this leads to interpretation and implementation differently to how the tutor intended. Analysis of tutor feedback styles indicates that they were focussed on giving praise and correcting misunderstandings in the present assignment. Developmental aspects of students’ learning were rarely addressed. These findings suggest that tutors need to provide more guidance to students regarding the use of feedback, possible by the introduction of better scaffolding and of variation into their feedback writing.

Development of a community of assessment practice by biology students and how this influences their approaches to learning (pdf document)

Paul Orsmond, Stephen Merry and Arthur Callaghan

Abstract: This study shows that undergraduate biology students can form a community of assessment practice when undertaking coursework preparation as part of an assessed assignment. Within this community, students, through informal self- and peer-assessment practices, demonstrate patterns of participation which reveal their varied approaches to learning. An interpretation of our findings is that students use engagement within communities as a means of closing what Vygotsky termed the Zone of Proximal Development. This study also considers how mediating artefacts, such as marking criteria provided by tutors, can be adapted by the community in order to give some community meaning. These implications of community practice are further discussed within the context of active learning theory.

Student Finance and Choice of University: Analysis of a survey of 2006/7 Entrants (pdf document)

Diana Tlupova

Abstract: The new student finance system implemented in England in 2006 aroused much controversy and raised concerns regarding its consistency with the government’s objective to increase participation and widen access. Debate has since concentrated upon the issue of the complexity of this system and the abilities of non-traditional students to access and interpret the information required to make efficient choices. Using survey data collected from new higher education entrants in one English university in the year 2006/07, this paper analyses the role of financial factors in students’ decision-making, their level of awareness about the new student finance system and students’ future income expectations. Based on the findings from the multivariate analyses it is concluded firstly, that different categories of non-traditional students behave differently when it comes to university choice and therefore they should not be treated as a homogenous group. Secondly, we find evidence that the new student finance system has indeed increased the complexity of student decision-making and is providing information too late or incentives too small to significantly affect participation decisions. Many students eligible for financial support seem to be either unaware of their eligibility or unwilling to apply for bursaries and grants even after starting their courses. Finally, no evidence was found that non-traditional students have lower future income expectations than traditional students.

Key words: higher education, student finance, university choice

The effectiveness of a self-enhancement intervention designed to raise aspirations and academic achievement in primary school students (pdf document)

Amanda Hughes, David Galbraith and Mark Torrance

Abstract: Consistently we encounter the assertion that self-esteem/self-efficacy and academic performance/aspirations are positively related and, therefore, it makes sense to raise students' self-esteem/self-efficacy if we want them to perform better. However, if we assume that self-esteem and self-efficacy are really unequivocal producers of increased academic attainment and raised aspirations (and there is much debate as to whether they are) it remains an entirely different question whether these self-perceptions can be enhanced by school interventions that focus on raising self-competence or feelings of self-worth through verbal persuasive methods, and whether they can make a lasting difference in students' view of themselves. This paper, therefore, describes quasi-experimental research examining the effects of self-esteem, self-efficacy and motivation on students' aspirations and academic achievement. Our aims were (a) to establish the extent to which these constructs are susceptible to manipulation using generalised self-enhancement training, and (b) to explore experimentally the relationship between these constructs and students' academic achievement and occupational aspirations.

'Going local': Effects of finance, schooling, and social background (pdf document)

Amanda Hughes, Kim Slack, Jean Mangan and Katy Vigurs

Abstract: The regime for student finance introduced in England for 2006/2007 creates a new set of conditions for choosing to participate in higher education. This has been the subject of much media speculation, particularly in relation to concerns that the shift of the financial burden towards students will reduce the likelihood of achieving stated policy objectives for widening participation. While evidence from other countries with similar experience suggests that the effect on widening participation may be small, even if this proves to be the case in England there may yet be some substantial effects on the location and type of institution at which students enrol, and the course of study they choose to pursue. This might occur as a result of variation in the cost of studying at different universities, eligibility for bursaries, fear of debt discouraging students from studying away from home, and concerns with debt repayment influencing career preferences and hence choice of course. Each of these factors may have a differential impact according to the social and school institutional background of young people considering participation in higher education.

Drawing on a large study of interview and questionnaire data from second year A-Level students at 20 schools and colleges across the Midlands, this paper presents some of the key findings from the research, exploring what attributes are connected to students' decisions to go to a local university and live at home whilst studying in higher education. Social and institutional effects and examination performance are examined to determine to what extent these factors act in isolation on decisions to study locally and/or live at home.

How are primary school teaching assistants being managed, motivated and led since the implementation of the National Workforce Agreement in 2003? (pdf document)

Jim Pugh

Abstract: Education has a long tradition of utilising support staff. Variety and breath of these roles has increased and now encompasses a range of staff from administrators, midday assistants, and those who support teaching and learning within the classroom. For the purpose of this paper it is this latter group that is of interest. Widely labelled Teaching Assistants (TA) the role, the tasks and the nomenclature of people performing this service have been subject to question. For the purposes of this paper I will use the more commonly adopted term of TA whilst exploring some of the complexity involved in the reality of the this role. Furthermore, in revealing these TA roles and duties implications for school leadership and management are also examined. This paper addresses key issues about: the changing role of the TA; how has the Workforce Agreement impacted upon the role of the TA; and what techniques school leaders and managers are employing to manage, motivate and lead TAs.

Roles and Responsibilities of Further Education lecturers: Standards, Aspirations and Reality (pdf document)

Cheryl Bolton

Abstract: The purpose of the paper was to examine the roles and responsibilities of teachers working within Further Education (FE) colleges in the UK to find if there are any significant discrepancies between the duties and expectations as explicated in Government policy and standards and the role performed in the eyes of the lecturers themselves. To inquire what the impact of any discrepancies may be on teacher satisfaction, professional identity and ultimately on leadership and implementation of Policies and proposals for FE (including the Foster Report (DfES 2005) and '14-19 Education and Skills' white paper (DfES 2005) and 'Further Education: Raising Skills, Improving Life Chances' (DfES 2006).

Variable Tuition Fees and Widening Participation: Issues and Some Early Evidence (pdf document)

Nick Adnett and Diana Tlupova

Abstract: In the light of the new English system of student finance, we identify a HE policy trilemma in which government is trying to switch more of the costs on to students, whist seeking to promote both increased and widening participation. In our analysis of this trilemma we reconsider the concepts of widening participation and fair access, and assess the economic arguments favouring their achievement. Using the orthodox economic analysis favoured by government, we next critically assess the rationale for the recent revisions to the system of student finance. From this analysis and using initial findings from surveys of entrants to UK HE and US experience, we assess the appropriateness of the current attempt to resolve the trilemma.

Key words: HE Participation; tuition fees; widening participation

School Effectiveness and Peer Group Effects: Interactions and social efficiency outcomes (pdf document)

Shqiponja Telhaj and Geoff Pugh

Abstract: This paper analyses the interaction of the school contribution to student attainment and the contribution associated with student quality. We develop a diagrammatic model to explore the implications of moving from school integration to concentration with respect to ability. Where adverse peer effects for low-ability students outweigh positive peer effects for high-ability students, the school system exerts greater total effort to secure lower overall attainment. Hence, concentration may be socially inefficient. Moreover, because the relationship between school effort and attainment is mediated by peer effects, reliable indicators of school performance are particularly difficult to construct.

Keywords: school effectiveness, peer effects, socially efficient outcomes, student attainment; performance indicators.

Effects of Writing on Conceptual Coherence (pdf document)

David Galbraith, Mark Torrance and Jenny Hallam

Abstract: Current cognitive models of writing attribute the discovery of new ideas through writing to explicit problem-solving processes, and treat text production as a passive process of translating ideas into text. This paper describes an alternative, dual-process model of writing, in which text production is assumed to be an active knowledge-constituting process. A key prediction of the model is that dispositionally guided text production will lead to the development of more conceptually coherent new ideas than writing directed towards extrinsic goals. An experiment designed to test this prediction is then described. The results confirm that dispositionally produced new ideas are relatively more conceptually coherent than new ideas produced to satisfy rhetorical goals.

Keywords: writing; coherence; dual process; text production.

Examination Performance and School Expenditure in English Secondary Schools in a dynamic setting (pdf document)

Jean Mangan, Geoff Pugh and John Gray

Abstract: This paper contributes to evaluation of two major features of government schools policy: we analyse jointly the performance effects of increasing expenditure and the institutional innovation of "specialist" status. The education production function literature finds no consistent relationship between school resources and school outcomes. Accordingly, recent debate has concentrated on data and methods (with a particular focus on addressing the potential endogeneity of school resources). There have also been a few UK studies on the performance effects of specialist school status, which suggest small improvements but different effect sizes by type of specialism.

The Drive to Attract More Students into Higher Education: Initiatives from the United Kingdom (pdf document)

Heather Eggins and Diana Tlupova

Introduction: Over the last half century the UK Higher Education system, like that of the US, has expanded from a system which had only a 5% participation rate in 1960 (an elite system) to one with a participation rate of 43% in 2004 (a mass system). The figure below (Fig.1) shows the average participation rate (the centre line). What is disturbing to the government is the marked discrepancy between the participation of the wealthier social classes (1-3n) whose participation has risen from 27% to 50% in that period, and the lower social classes (3m-5) whose participation has risen, but from a low base of around 4% to around 18% in 2004. This represents a marked loss of talent for the country.

Problematising research with 'potential learners': tales from the field (pdf document)

Kim Slack and Katy Vigurs

Abstract: Researchers working in the field of widening participation and lifelong learning are working with a diverse range of research participants in an equally diverse range of research contexts. Such research frequently involves attempts to establish contact and engage with marginalised groups and individuals (often labelled as 'hard to reach' and 'excluded') so as to explore their experiences and perceptions of education. This can be problematic in practice as such groups and individuals may be vulnerable (e.g. care-leavers, homeless people, those living with mental health issues), and/or reluctant to become involved in research which may be perceived as being an alien and meaningless process with little relevance to their lives.

This paper focuses on the methodological approaches developed in order to try to engage with 'potential learners' (defined as 'non-learners' in the call for proposals) as research participants, as part of a recent research project funded by the Learning and Skills Research Centre (LSRC) to explore the concept of learning brokerage (Thomas et al, 2005). Our discussion will focus on methodological insights drawn from trying to engage potential learners as research participants in relation to four case studies. This paper will draw upon tales from the field to highlight some of the issues involved in developing and conducting qualitative research with potential learners in different contexts, pointing to the strengths and limitations of the different approaches.

Learning journeys: The experiences of students working towards a Foundation Degree (pdf document)

Kim Slack and Stephanie Tierney

Abstract: This article reports on a series of interviews held with individuals in the middle of a Foundation Degree, during which they were asked for their views of studying for this qualification. It draws on a research project conducted with part time students involved in work-based learning. The research into their 'learning journeys' aimed to explore the process of becoming and being a student. Findings suggested that individuals had embarked on a Foundation Degree for career-related reasons, although they also noted that their course returned secondary benefits, such as an increase in self-confidence and additional life skills. Interviewees found it difficult to juggle competing demands on their time and needed emotional and practical support from those around them to do so. Other areas of concern were the lack of adequate assistance from tutors that some students felt when it came to writing assignments and the financial hardship that undertaking such a vocational qualification could bring. Results from this study highlight facets of Foundation Degrees that need to be considered by those delivering such courses.

Choosing in schools: locating the benefits of specialisation (pdf document)

Peter Davies, Neil Davies, David Hutton, Nick Adnett and Robert Coe.

Abstract: Recent policy in England has suggested that educational outcomes will be raised if schools specialise in particular subjects. In contrast, calls for the reform of 16-19 education have suggested that these outcomes will be improved if students become less specialised in their studies. At present, there is a limited evidence base from which to judge these arguments. In particular, we do not know the extent to which students’ achievements in 16-19 education are higher when they choose subjects which play to their perceived strengths. We also do not know whether students are more likely to choose to study subjects taught by more effective departments. That is, outcomes may be affected by the relative strengths of students or departments in circumstances where there is freedom to choose. In this paper we provide evidence of the existence and strength of the relationships. This evidence suggests that reducing the scope within schools for specialisation or competition will reduce average student attainment and these effects ought to be taken into account when evaluating alternative curriculum policies.

Key Terms: Subject choice, examination entries, student attainment

Faith schools, social capital and academic attainment: evidence from TIMSS-R mathematics scores in Flemish secondary schools (pdf document)

Geoff Pugh and Shqiponje Telhaj

Abstract: Social capital theory, recent developments in the theory of identity and a small econometric literature all suggest positive attainment effects from faith schooling. To test this hypothesis, we use a unique dataset on Flemish secondary school students from the 1999 repeat of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study to estimate an education production function. Our results suggest modest attainment benefits in mathematics when schools are influenced by faith communities but not when they are influenced by trade unions or business groups. We estimate models with exogenous and endogenous switching to investigate the robustness of this result to school selection policy and parental/student self-selection. These additional results not only suggest that the positive attainment effects of faith schooling do not reflect selection bias but also provide evidence suggesting that such attainment effects reflect forms of social capital that are more readily available in faith schools than in non-faith schools. However, the limitations of social capital theory and evidence caution against radical policy conclusions.

Key words: Educational attainment; social capital; identity; faith schools; TIMSS; selection bias

(Presented to the 5th Annual Conference of the Association for the Study of Religion, Economy and Culture (affiliated to the US Society for the Scientific Study of Religion), Portland, Oregon; Oct. 2006 and forthcoming in the British Educational Research Journal.)

Student Finance and Widening Participation in the British Isles: Common problems, different solutions

Nick Adnett

Across the British Isles there are common forces encouraging an expansion of HE whilst constraining the ability and willingness of governments to finance it. We examine the nature of these forces and conclude that together they are likely to lead over time to the general taxpayer funding a declining share of HE costs. Whilst there are some potential efficiency and social equity benefits from reforms of student finance motivated by switching more of the costs towards students and their parents, the likely impact of these reforms on widening participation is unclear. We examine the current student finance systems in the British Isles and assess whether a system based upon income contingent student loans, means-tested grants and targeted bursaries can deliver both the desired expansion and widening access.

Are There Economic Incentives for Non-traditional Students to Enter HE? The labour market as a barrier to widening participation

Nick Adnett and Kim Slack

The expansion of Higher Education (HE) in the UK has disproportionately benefited young people from relatively rich families: the gap between rich and poor in terms of participation in HE having widened since the 1970s.We explore a neglected possible cause of this class difference: that the labour market fails to provide sufficient incentives for potential entrants from less advantaged backgrounds to enter HE. Most studies of the rewards from participating in HE in the UK suggest that the rates of returns are sufficiently high to provide clear economic incentives to participate. However, until recently most studies generated estimates of the average rate of return to graduation, which could over-estimate returns to marginal entrants, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds. In this review we examine the methodological problems faced by more targeted studies of the rates of return to graduation and review their key findings concerning the economic returns to non-traditional entrants.

The Effects of Manipulating Planning Knowledge on Writing
Quality in Primary-Age Writers (pdf document)

Elicia Cooke and Mark Torrance

This study examined whether a short, one off, teaching intervention aimed at
developing students’ understanding of how to plan their text would increase writing quality and planning knowledge of students ranging from age seven to eight, and eleven to twelve. It involved briefly teaching students four aspects of planning: content generation, goal setting, audience analysis, and structuring. The intervention lasted for approximately thirty minutes. This was then followed by a fifteen-minute writing task and then a planning-knowledge assessment task which involved watching a video of an actor planning and asking students to identify the various different planning components. The intervention did not result in higher quality text compared to a control group of students who were not exposed to the intervention, although this group did show improved planning knowledge. This pattern was true for both the younger and older age groups. It was concluded that although planning knowledge can be increased, just having that knowledge does not produce higher quality texts.

Social background, gender and subject choice in secondary schooling (pdf document)

Peter Davies, Shqiponje Telhaj, David Hutton, Nick Adnett and Robert Coe

The desirable extent of curriculum choice to be offered to students remains a central policy question in England. Previous studies of the impact of the introduction of a common curriculum for 14-16 year olds in 1988 have suggested that some gender differences were narrowed as a result. These studies have examined subject choice either in terms of students' ex ante preferences in advance of enrolling for subjects or in terms of ex post aggregate data on examination entries. There is some conflict between the evidence provided by these two sources. One possible reason for this conflict could be that existing ex post evidence does not examine the interaction between student characteristics or the effect of school level variables.

Improving learning by focusing on variation

Peter Davies and Richard Dunnill

Recent work (Pang and Marton, 2003, 2005) that has been carried out in Hong Kong on economics education provides a valuable model for improving students' learning by focusing on variation. There are three main aspects in focusing teaching on variation: (1) As teachers we need to be clear about the distinct aspects of the phenomenon that might vary; (2) We should identify how these dimensions of variation are related to our learning (3) We should plan our teaching to highlight variation in the dimension (or dimensions) that are most strongly related to our learning objective; and (4) We should be attentive to what students say and do in a lesson in order to recognise in their talk and their writing the way in which they are understanding the phenomenon so that we can direct their attention to variation that will help them to progress.

Increasing Within-School Competition: a case for department level performance indicators? (pdf document)

Shqiponja Telhaj#, Robert Coe†, Peter Davies *, David Hutton† and Nick Adnett*

Abstract We investigate the size and stability of departmental effects in English secondary schooling during a period in which extensions of parental choice and annual publication of school performance tables had significantly increased competitive pressures on schools. Our database of nearly 450 English secondary schools enables us to investigate departments in terms of both their unadjusted and value-added average student performance in national examinations. We are interested in the nature of intra-school competition and concentrate upon two subjects, Geography and History, which were optional subjects in each of these schools. In general, we find that relative departmental performance varies significantly over time and that few departments manage to persistently out-perform the other subject in their school. We conclude that given the instability of relative departmental performance, the planned publication of department level performance indicators is unlikely to generate strong incentives for departments to raise their effort and effectiveness.

Key Words: school choice; performance indicators; curriculum; competition; student
attainment

The contribution of different components of working memory to
knowledge transformation during writing

David Galbraith, Sheila Ford, Gillian Walker and Jessica Ford

Abstract Outlining is probably the most common strategy recommended to help novice writers improve their writing. However, although there is good evidence that it has beneficial effects, much less is known about how it achieves these effects. In this paper, we examine how ideas are developed during outlining and how this is related to the quality of the text which is subsequently produced. We focus particularly on how the different processes are coordinated in working memory and on differences between more and less experienced writers, with a view to drawing out the implications for educational practice.

Key words: knowledge transforming, text planning, working memory, Writing, writing expertise.

Biology students' utilisation of tutors' formative feedback: a qualitative interview study.

Paul Orsmond, Stephen Merry & Kevin Reiling

Abstract Ramaprasad (1983) defined feedback as information about the gap between actual performance level and the reference level, which is subsequently used to alter that gap. Feedback, therefore, needs to be meaningful, understood and correctly acted upon. Tutors not only have to give feedback; they should really evaluate how effective their feedback has been. This study reports the findings of semi-structured interviews with third year biology students on their utilisation of tutor feedback. We show that students use feedback in six ways. Four specific uses were (a) to enhance motivation, (b) to enhance learning, (c) to encourage reflection and (d) to clarify understanding. Two further forms of usage were, firstly, to enrich their learning environment and, secondly, to engage in mechanistic enquiries into their study. The findings are discussed in the context of current literature and specific recommendations are given as to how the impact of tutors' feedback could be enhanced.

Key words: feedback, performance level, reference level

A quantitative and qualitative study of changes in the use of learning outcomes and distractions by students and tutors during a biology poster assessment

Chart to accompany the paper

Paul Orsmond, Stephen Merry & David Sheffield

Abstract A learning outcomes-based approach to curriculum planning is being increasingly adopted within institutions of higher education. Learning outcomes are statements of intended learning for a specific module or course of study. In practice, however, when undertaking an assessed assignment students will usually consider a number of options on how to proceed. They may feel they can meet the stated learning outcomes by demonstrating other aspects of study, for example, providing as much factual information on the assessed topic as possible. Such alternative aspects of study are termed distractions. The study involved 33 level 2 undergraduate students undertaking a module entitled "Research Skills". Scientific posters were chosen as the assessment vehicle in this study since they have explicit distractions. A questionnaire was completed by the students 5, 3, and 1 week prior to poster submission and also on the day of the submission. Additionally, ten students were interviewed and discussions took place with eleven supervising tutors. Analysis of the questionnaire data was carried out using Principle Components Analysis and ANOVA. This analysis revealed that students did not differentiate between learning outcomes and distractions. Interview data analysis involved clustering units of relevant meaning and identifying general and unique themes. These results are discussed within the context of the hidden curriculum, the form and function of assessment tasks and implications for practice are explored including how assessment is introduced to students.

Key words: learning outcomes, distractions, hidden curriculum

Recognising Threshold Concepts: an exploration of different approaches

Peter Davies and Jean Mangan

Abstract This paper outlines the recently developed idea of 'Threshold Concepts' and explains how this idea may be used to describe the progress of learning in economics. A range of evidence is presented to illustrate the existence and implications of threshold concepts in economics. We extend current understanding of threshold concepts by indicating that these might best be seen as a web of concepts which link thinking and practice in a discipline.

Key words: threshold concepts

Improving the quality of students' judgements through 'assessment for learning'

Peter Davies

Abstract Specifications in England and Wales frequently cite improvement in the quality of students' arguments as a key objective of courses of study for public examinations. More generally, this objective might be seen as a central element in the process of education. However, there is evidence that progress in the quality of students' arguments is disappointing relative to other dimensions of their achievement. Research evidence on the differences between informal and formal arguments provides a basis for identifying weaknesses in students' arguments that might be addressed in teaching. This evidence also suggests ways in which these weaknesses might be addressed. However, this literature provides a generic account of the development of argument, rarely paying attention to differences between different subjects. Drawing on this literature this paper describes an approach to supporting the development of students' arguments within three curriculum subject areas: geography, business studies and citizenship education. Similarities and differences between the subjects are identified and the way in which these characteristics of arguments have been used with students to develop their arguments is exemplified.

Key words: Development of students' arguments in georgraphy, business studies and citizenship education.

When 'becoming a 50% school' is success enough: a principal-agent analysis of subject leaders' target setting

Peter Davies†, Gwen Coates, Linda Hammersley-Fletcher and Jean Mangan
Institute for Education Policy Research, Staffordshire University

Abstract Using the perspective of principal agent theory, we suggest that the target setting process imposed by the government has shifted teachers' focus away from their personal educational priorities. Our evidence suggests that schools with a higher proportion of students with high academic achievement differ in their practice of target setting from schools with a below average proportion of students achieving high examination grades. We examine possible explanations for variations in teachers' practice and suggest some implications for policy.

Key words: principal agent, target setting

Can creative teachers be nurtured in a regulated framework?
- possibilities within distributed leadership

Linda Hammersley-Fletcher (Staffordshire University) and Lynne Croft (Primary School Subject Leader)

(Paper presented at 7th International BELMAS/SCRELM Research Conference 8th - 10th July 2004, St. Catherine's College, Oxford.)

Abstract This paper focuses on the relationship between leadership practices and the ability to be creative and innovative in primary school subject leadership. Various government policies, (National Curriculum, numeracy and literacy strategies, Standard assessment tests, OfSTED inspections) have increased accountability, workload and curriculum prescription in schools. This has left less time and energy for creativity in approaches to teaching and learning. Government representatives have recently appeared to give some support to creativity and innovation in the form of a new innovations unit but whilst such support is limited, other ways of encouraging creativity in teaching approaches is needed. A recent interest in distributed leadership may provide the empowerment that subject leaders need in order to be creative in their approach to developing the curriculum in schools. It is argued that particular forms of leadership allow subject leaders the flexibility and status needed to be creative and innovative whilst remaining accountable and taking a lead. This paper reports research commissioned by the National College for School Leadership. Data are drawn from interviews conducted in twenty two primary schools with the headteacher and two subject leaders. Information was collected on the styles of leadership these teachers have encountered, the styles of leadership they preferred or desired and the extent to which individuals within the school had autonomy.

Key words: leadership, creativity and innovation

The Emotionally Literate Primary School

Heather Colwell (Subject Leader) and Linda Hammersley-Fletcher (Staffordshire University)

Abstract A growing number of teaching practitioners are beginning to recognise the importance of emotional literacy and the need for being valued and empowered (Blaker, 2002; Walters, 2002; Atkins, 2002). Even before this recent interest, aspects of emotional intelligence were highlighted as examples of good practice. For example Campbell and Southworth (1992) believed that cultures of collaboration were built on valuing groups and the individuals within them. Bryk and Schneider (2002) found that trust has an impressive effect on school improvement. Communicating with and making everyone in the school community feel involved links very closely with current interest in distributed leadership (Jones, 2003). This paper considers the role of emotional literacy in the development of distributed leadership through research commissioned by the National College for School Leadership. Data is drawn from semi-structured interviews conducted in each of twenty two primary schools. Interviews were conducted with the headteacher, one core and one foundation subject leader in each school. Information was collected on the styles of leadership these teachers had encountered, the styles of leadership they preferred or desired and the extent to which individuals within the school were empowered in their roles.

Key words: emotional literacy, valued, trusted, empowered

Institutional and social background effects on the probability of taking an examination subject at age 16 (pdf document)

Peter Davies†, Shqiponje Telhaj†, David Hutton‡, Nick Adnett† and Robert Coe‡
† Institute for Education Policy Research, Staffordshire University
‡ Curriculum, Evaluation and Management Centre, University of Durham

Abstract Recent policy developments in England provide a basis for renewed interest in the factors affecting the probability of a pupil choosing one subject rather than another in the later years of secondary schooling. Using a large data set encompassing pupil characteristics, school characteristics and examination entry details we examine the factors affecting the probability that a student will be entered for examination in Business Studies, French, Geography, German, History, Home Economics and Spanish. Using a clustered logit model we identify the separate effects of different variables. This analysis allows us to review previous results from studies of subject choice in England from a new perspective. By including measures of value added at department level we are also able to examine the relationship between enrolments and departmental performance. The paper is an outcome from the ESRC Project RES-000-22-0090 'Within School Competition and Pupil Achievement'.

Key words: subject choice, examination entries, value-added

The Myth of the Bog Standard Secondary School: a school level analysis of students' choice of optional subjects (pdf document)

Peter Davies†, Shqiponje Telhaj†, David Hutton‡, Nick Adnett* and Robert Coe‡

Abstract We present results of an ESRC-funded study into variations in student enrolment and attainment in different subjects. Recent English policy proposals indicate a further extension of specialist secondary schools and relaxation of the National Curriculum requirements for students aged 14-16. These initiatives, together with negative comments related to 'bog standard comprehensives', seem to imply that a lack of choice or variation in English secondary schooling was constraining attempts to raise educational attainment levels. Policy appears again to have outstripped evidence since we know relatively little about the extent and consequences of student choice within secondary schools. In principle, increased within-school choice can raise educational attainment levels if it enables parents, students, teachers and heads to improve the match between the curriculum studied and the particular aspirations and abilities of students. We explore the extent and determinants of within-school choice using cross-sectional data drawn from the YELLIS database held by the Curriculum, Evaluation and Management Centre at the University of Durham. Our analysis reveals large variation between schools in GCSE exam entries in Geography, History, Modern Foreign Languages, Business Studies and Home Economics. We show that the proportions of this variation that are due to school level factors (such as school governance and size) and the characteristics of the cohort of pupils attending a school are both relatively small. We consider the implications of these results for policy on curriculum specialisation between and within schools.

Key words: lack of choice, school level factors, characteristics of pupil cohort

School Resources and Student Attainment: The missing role of inspection

Jean Mangan, Steve Hurd and Nick Adnett

Abstract A wide range of empirical research has failed to find a clear link between the quantity of school inputs and student outcomes. Explanations for the general failure of broad resource policies to raise student attainment have largely concentrated upon the possibilities that teachers capture resources to increase their rents and/or schools face insufficient incentives to focus on improving educational value-added. We investigate a neglected possibility: that external agents, such as school inspection bodies, may create incentives for schools to allocate their resources away from maximizing valued-added examination output. In English secondary schools we find evidence that a high inspection grade is positively correlated with school expenditures on computers and software, independently of the impact of such expenditures on value added output. This has implications both for school resource policy and for the practices of inspection agencies.

JEL classification: I21, I28
Key words: resource allocation, education economics

Competition Within Schools: Representativeness of Yellis Sample Schools in a Study of Subject Enrollment of 14-16 Year Olds (pdf document)

Authors Shqiponje Telhaj†, David Hutton‡, Peter Davies†, Nick Adnett† and Robert Coe‡

† Institute for Education Policy Research, Staffordshire University
‡ Curriculum, Evaluation and Management Centre, University of Durham

Abstract The issue of sample representativeness is critical in impact evaluations. Biases can arise from a sample which does not represent the participant population, or a non-participant sample which does not represent the participant population. Representativeness expresses the degree to which sample data accurately and precisely represents a characteristic of a population's, parameter variations at a sampling point. Representativeness is a qualitative parameter which is most concerned with the proper design of the sampling programme. The representativeness criterion is best satisfied by making certain that sampling locations are selected properly and a sufficient number of samples are collected.

Key words: Representativeness, Impact evaluations, Sampling.

The influence of schooling on the aspirations of young people with special educational needs

Authors: Lorraine Casey†, Peter Davies†*, Afroditi Kalambouka‡, Nick Nelson‡, and Bill Boyle‡

† Institute for Education Policy Research, Staffordshire University, ‡ Centre for Formative Assessment Studies, University of Manchester

* Corresponding Author: Peter Davies

Abstract We investigate the effect of schooling on the aspirations of young people designated as having mild learning difficulties (MLD, n=604) or emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD, n= 401) in the first large scale study of its kind in England. Data were collected from parents and their 15/16 year old children in the final year of their compulsory schooling in schools. The results indicate on average a positive effect of mainstream schooling on the aspirations of these pupils with the caveat that these benefits are more likely to accrue to pupils whose parents are in higher status occupations. In our conclusions we discuss the implications of these results for education policy in the context of local management of schools.

Competing conceptions and values in school strategy: rational planning and beyond

Authors: Peter Davies† and Gwen Coates

† Corresponding author: Peter Davies

Abstract: Government policy in England has encouraged schools to adopt a rational planning model on the basis that this will contribute to school effectiveness. This policy has been criticised for neglecting the consequences for the planning process of volatility in schools' external environment and for replacing well-developed professional knowledge and commitment with inappropriate models from 'for-profit' business. We agree that the rational planning model is not an appropriate basis for school management but dispute these diagnoses of the nature of the problem. We suggest that it is uncertainty about processes internal to the school that are the problem and that an appropriate managerial response to this problem can draw upon business ideas which are not oppositional to professional expertise and values, whilst questioning professional self-interest.

Bold, reckless and adaptable? Explaining gender differences in economic thinking and attitudes

Authors: Peter Davies, Jean Mangan and Shqiponja Telhaj

Abstract In the first half of this paper we develop a perspective on the role of 'boldness' in explaining gender differences in thinking and attitudes. We apply this analysis to evidence from Australia, the US, and the UK in relation to economics at school and university levels. In the second half we present the results of a study of over 1000 15-17 year olds in UK secondary schools. On the basis of the gender differences revealed in these data and our preceding analysis we offer some implications for learning and teaching.

Key Words: Gender Differences, Citizenship Education, Economic Understanding

The Political Economy of Private-Sector Provision of Education: concepts and contradictions.

Authors: Nick Adnett

Abstract The school choice agenda has promoted increased inter-school competition as a means of creating stronger incentives for state schools to raise measures of average pupil attainment. Privatisation of the provision of schooling takes market-based reforms a stage further. The rationale employed for such policies elsewhere in the public sector has been based upon efficiency gains, arguing that existing government failures were more harmful than future market failures and that contracting or regulation can control the latter. We identify the factors that have increased government concern with educational outcomes and why these concerns have renewed interest in privatisation. Given the multiple outputs generated by education providers, privatisation may be particularly attractive to governments who find that the professionalism of teachers and their public service motivation generate severe agency problems. In contrast, for-profit providers are likely to be much more responsive to targeted incentive mechanisms. However, privatisation has appeared less successful when unmonitored employee effort is an important component of production or when equity considerations are central to the good or service provided. The latter because the delivery system of the 'product' and voter support for its public financing are inter-related.

Key words: Private sector provision, inter-school competition, pupil attainment, for-profit providers

Investigating the Possible Benefits of Greater Choice within Secondary Schools

Authors: Nick Adnett, Robert Coe, Peter Davies, David Hutton and Shqiponja Telhaj

Abstract Recent policy proposals have indicated a further relaxation of the National Curriculum requirements for students aged 14-16. However, as yet we know relatively little about the consequences of increased student choice within rather than between secondary schools. Increased within school choice can raise educational attainment levels if it enables parents, students, teachers and heads to improve the match between the curriculum studied and the particular aspirations and abilities of students. The changing position of Geography and History in successive adjustments to the National Curriculum provides a natural experiment for educational researchers. Our sample is 400 schools from the Curriculum, Evaluation and Management Centre's YELISYELLIS and ALIS databases. In this paper we report the initial findings of this ESRC-funded project investigating the determinants of student choice and its impact upon average attainment levels and their distribution.

Key words: National Curriculum, student choice, aspirations and abilities of students

Are Secondary Schools Spending Enough on Books?

Authors: Steve Hurd, Jean Mangan and Nick Adnett

Abstract Evidence is provided to illustrate that the current level of spending on books by English secondary schools is low with regard to maintaining existing book stocks and that parental expenditure is not making up the shortfall. Our analysis of the inspection regime suggests a tendency to emphasise ICT to the relative neglect of books. We also provide an empirical study at school level of the respective contribution of books, ICT and other inputs to both student performance and overall success in inspections. Its findings raise important questions about not only the efficiency of resource allocation but also the role and mutual consistency of the examination and inspection systems.

Key words: school books, ICT, resource allocation, inspection, school performance.

The best years of your life? Contrasting the local and the non-local student experience of higher education

Authors: Kim Slack and Lorraine Casey

Abstract: The student population in higher education is becoming increasingly diverse as a result of widening participation, and this is set to continue with the Government target set at 50% participation of young people under 30 by 2010. Despite this however, one specific group of students remain largely unexplored: students who study locally and remain living at home. This paper draws on initial data from an on-going longitudinal project exploring the experiences of a small cohort of students as they make their way through university. It focuses particularly on the first year experiences of students who attend their local university and remain living at home compared to students who have taken the more traditional route in the UK and moved away from home to study. Currently, an increasing number of students, particularly those from lower socio-economic groups, are choosing local courses. Their experiences raise some important questions in relation to issues of access and retention, and the student experience more generally. Our research builds on existing work on institutional habitus and explores further the ways in which institutions can help support non-traditional students to succeed.

Key words: widening participation, retention, non-traditional student, live at home

Competition Between or Within Schools? Re-assessing School Choice

Author: Peter Davies

Corresponding Author: Nick Adnett

Abstract: Market-based reforms of state schooling systems have been justified by the benefits anticipated from encouraging greater inter-school competition in local schooling markets. Promoting increased competition by comparison was seen as a means of stimulating greater allocative, technical and dynamic efficiency in the schooling system. However in England, school effectiveness research suggests that once adjustment is made for pupil characteristics, variations in pupil attainment levels between secondary schools are small and unstable over time. Some evidence suggests that differences in pupil attainment by subject within schools are larger, indicating the potential to raise attainment levels by increasing choice within schools. In this paper we seek to extend the school choice debate by examining the economic rationale for increasing intra-school competition within secondary schools.

Key words: school choice, curriculum, competition

Educating Citizens for Changing Economies

Author: Peter Davies

This paper is forthcoming in the Journal of Curriculum Studies and so is not available here.

Encouraging Cream-skimming and Dreg-siphoning? Increasing Competion between English HEIs

Author: Nick Adnett

Corresponding Author: Gwen Coates

Abstract: We examine the impact of recent policy on the nature of competition within English higher education. Promoting increased competition by comparison was advocated as a means of stimulating greater allocative, technical and dynamic efficiency in both schools and universities. Similarly, relaxing institutions' capacity constraints and introducing targeted financial incentives have been touted as effective mechanisms to assist the attainment of policy objectives. However, the experience of market-based reforms of state secondary schooling indicates that dysfunctional responses occur and that the overall impact on market behaviour is more complex than anticipated. We consider whether similar processes are evolving in higher education.

Keywords: competition, higher education, performance indicators, widening participation

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